❞ كتاب 7 PHONETICS ❝ ⏤ Daniel Jurafsky

هذا القسم يحتوى علي كل ما يتعلق بعلم الصوتيات.

الصوتيات أو علم النطق أو علم الأصوات الكلامية هو أحد فروع علم اللسانيات، يُعنى بالجهاز الصوتي ومخارج أصوات الكلام الإنساني وتبويبها. كان الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي أول عالم صوتيات عربي والقاموس الذي كتبه فيه أول تصنيف لأصوات اللغة العربية. لكل لغة نظامها الصوتي الخاص بها التي يمكن كتابة أصواتها بنظامها الكتابي أو بالألفبائية الصوتية الدولية الصوتية (IPA) التي تمّكن دارسي اللغات من نطق أصواتها أو التعرف عليها.

تتألَّفُ اللغة من أصوات تجتمع لتُعبِّر عن الأشياء الحسِّيَّة والأفكار المجرَّدة، ويعتمد تصنيف الأصوات اللُّغويَّة على دراسة كيفيَّات الأصوات وطرائق تحقُّقها وإصدارها والآليَّات التي تدخل فيها والأعضاء التي في إنجازها، أي على المعرفة الدقيقة بأعضاء النطق، وعلى الفهم العلميّ لعمليَّة الكلام...

تنقسم الأصوات اللغوية إلى قسمين: الأصوات الصامتة أو الساكنة حرف صامت والأصوات المصوتة أو الصائتة أصوات اللين حرف مصوت.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.

Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches:[2]

Articulatory phonetics: the articulation of speech[3]
Acoustic phonetics: the acoustics of speech
Auditory phonetics: the perception of speech
Phonetic insight is used in several applied linguistic fields such as:

Forensic phonetics: the use of phonetics for legal purposes
Speech recognition: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system
Speech synthesis: the production of human speech by a computer system
Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs and how they pattern in and across languages. Phonology has been argued to relate to phonetics via the set of distinctive features, which map the abstract representations of speech units to articulatory gestures, acoustic signals or perceptual representations

contents
1        History
2      Consonants
2.1      Place of articulation
2.1.1    Labial consonants
2.1.2    Coronal consonants
2.1.3    Dorsal consonants
2.1.4    Radical consonants
2.1.5    Glottal consonants
2.2       Manner of articulation
3               Vowels
3.1         Vowel features
3.1.1    Vowel height
3.1.2        Vowel backness
3.1.3    Lip position
3.1.4    Minor features
4    Acoustic and auditory phonetics
5         Anatomy
5.1          The larynx
5.2        Pulmonary and subglottal system
6    Voicing and phonation types
7       Articulatory models
8          Sign languages
9       Transcription

7 PHONETICS

The debate between the “whole language” and “phonics” methods of teaching reading to children seems at very glance like a purely modern educational debate. Like
many modern debates, however, this one recapitulates an important historical dialectic, in this case in writing systems. The earliest independently-invented writing systems (Sumerian, Chinese, Mayan) were mainly logographic: one symbol represented
a whole word. But from the earliest stages we can find, most such systems contain
elements of syllabic or phonemic writing systems, in which symbols are used to represent the sounds that make up the words. Thus the Sumerian symbol pronounced ba
and meaning “ration” could also function purely as the sound /ba/. Even modern Chinese, which remains primarily logographic, uses sound-based characters to spell out
foreign words. Purely sound-based writing systems, whether syllabic (like Japanese
hiragana or katakana), alphabetic (like the Roman alphabet used in this book), or consonantal (like Semitic writing systems), can generally be traced back to these early
logo-syllabic systems, often as two cultures came together. 

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