๐ ูุฑุงุกุฉ ูุชุงุจ Advances in Political Economy part 1 text 16 ุฃูููุงูู
: Book Description
This volume is intended to help readers understand the relationship
between international law and international relations (IL/IR). As a testament
to this dynamic area of inquiry, new research on IL/IR is now being
published in a growing list of traditional law reviews and disciplinary
journals. The excerpted articles in this volume, all of which were first
published in International Organization, represent some of the most
important research since serious social science scholarship began in
this area more than twenty years ago. They are important milestones
toward making IL/IR a central concern of scholarly research in
international affairs. The contributions have been selected to cover
some of the main topics of international affairs and to provide readers
with a range of theoretical perspectives, concepts, and heuristics that
can be used to analyze the relationship between international law and
international relations.
ุดุฑุญ ุงููุชุงุจ :
ููุฏู ูุฐุง ุงูู
ุฌูุฏ ุฅูู ู
ุณุงุนุฏุฉ ุงููุฑุงุก ุนูู ููู
ุงูุนูุงูุฉ
ุจูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูุงูุนูุงูุงุช ุงูุฏูููุฉ (IL / IR). ูุดูุงุฏุฉ
ูู ู
ุฌุงู ุงูุจุญุซ ุงูุฏููุงู
ููู ูุฐุง ุ ูุชู
ุงูุขู ุฅุฌุฑุงุก ุจุญุซ ุฌุฏูุฏ ุญูู IL / IR
ูุดุฑุช ูู ูุงุฆู
ุฉ ู
ุชุฒุงูุฏุฉ ู
ู ู
ุฑุงุฌุนุงุช ุงููุงููู ุงูุชูููุฏู ูุงูุชุฃุฏูุจู
ุงูู
ุฌูุงุช. ุงูู
ูุงูุงุช ุงูู
ูุชุทูุงุช ูู ูุฐุง ุงูู
ุฌูุฏ ุ ููููุง ูุงูุช ุฃููู
ุงูู
ูุดูุฑุฉ ูู ู
ูุธู
ุฉ ุฏูููุฉ ุ ุชู
ุซู ุจุนุถูุง ู
ู ุฃูุซุฑูุง
ุจุญุซ ู
ูู
ู
ูุฐ ุฃู ุจุฏุฃุช ู
ูุญุฉ ุงูุนููู
ุงูุงุฌุชู
ุงุนูุฉ ุงูุฌุงุฏุฉ ูู
ูุฐู ุงูู
ูุทูุฉ ู
ูุฐ ุฃูุซุฑ ู
ู ุนุดุฑูู ุนุงู
ูุง. ุฅููุง ู
ุนุงูู
ู
ูู
ุฉ
ูุญู ุฌุนู IL / IR ู
ุตุฏุฑ ููู ู
ุฑูุฒู ููุจุญุซ ุงูุนูู
ู ูู
ุงูุดุคูู ุงูุฏูููุฉ. ุชู
ุงุฎุชูุงุฑ ุงูู
ุณุงูู
ุงุช ูุชุบุทูุฉ
ุจุนุถ ุงูู
ูุถูุนุงุช ุงูุฑุฆูุณูุฉ ููุดุคูู ุงูุฏูููุฉ ูุชุฒููุฏ ุงููุฑุงุก ุจูุง
ู
ุน ู
ุฌู
ูุนุฉ ู
ู ูุฌูุงุช ุงููุธุฑ ุงููุธุฑูุฉ ูุงูู
ูุงููู
ูุงูุงุณุชุฏูุงู
ูู
ูู ุงุณุชุฎุฏุงู
ูุง ูุชุญููู ุงูุนูุงูุฉ ุจูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ู
ุนูุงูุงุช ุฏูููุฉ.
Freedom of expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a
democratic society, one of the basic conditions for its progress, and for the
development of every man.
The Human Rights Act 1998 (‘the Act’) has now come fully into force
throughout the UK on 2 October 2000. It is likely to have far-reaching
implications for most, if not all, areas of civil and criminal law, including the
law affecting the media.
The objective of the Act is stated to be ‘to give further effect’ in UK law to
the majority of the rights provided for in the European Convention of Human
Rights (‘the Convention’). The Act does not create new substantive rights
under domestic law, but it makes existing Convention rights more immediate
and relevant.
Law, Order and Freedom gives an account of the history of Western legal and
political philosophy. It focuses on law as a system of norms which aspires to provide
a fair balance between order and freedom. This liberal ideal of law and justice
is a distinctive feature of many present-day constitutions, specifically in Western
culture. Western legal orders are permeated with the principles of Enlightenment
philosophy, that is, liberty, equality, and (to a lesser degree) fraternity, which
have been translated into the institutions of the democratic constitutional state
with its characteristic rule of law, separation of powers and human rights. Judicial
interpretation too takes place within this spirit.
The fifth edition of this book that appeared in 2003 has been extensively
revised. To mark the growing importance of the international prosecution
of alleged war criminals and others accused of egregious crimes, a
new chapter on Individual Criminal Responsibility in International Law
has been introduced. The chapter on Air and Space Law has had to be
removed, with the section on Outer Space being moved to the chapter
on Territory. The increasing significance of the International Court of
Justice is recognised by devoting a separate chapter to it. The section on
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea has been moved to the
chapter on the Law of the Sea. The other chapters in the book have been
re-examined, updated and, where necessary, rewritten. I have also been
able to correct some errors. I am particularly delighted that the book
has been translated into, among other languages, Chinese, Polish, Hungarian
and Portuguese and I am very grateful for the work of all those
involved.
I would especially like to thank Sinead Moloney of Cambridge
University Press for her encouragement, assistance and above all patience.
Particular gratitude is owed to Merel Alstein for her meticulous research
assistance and for updating the web reference section. I am, once again,
very grateful to Diane Ilott for her careful and thorough copy-editing and
to Maureen MacGlashan for so carefully preparing the index and tables
respectively. A debt remains to Sir Elihu Lauterpacht QC for his encouragement
in the early development of this work. I also remain grateful to
my many colleagues from many countries for their advice and encouragement,
while reassuring them that all responsibility for the end product
rests squarely with me.
ุดุฑุญ ุงููุชุงุจ
ุงูุทุจุนุฉ ุงูุฎุงู
ุณุฉ ู
ู ูุฐุง ุงููุชุงุจ ุงูุชู ุธูุฑุช ูู ุนุงู
2003 ูุงูุช ุนูู ูุทุงู ูุงุณุน
ู
ุฑุงุฌุนุฉ. ููุฅุดุงุฑุฉ ุฅูู ุงูุฃูู
ูุฉ ุงูู
ุชุฒุงูุฏุฉ ููู
ูุงุญูุฉ ุงูุฏูููุฉ
ุจู
ุฌุฑู
ู ุงูุญุฑุจ ุงูู
ุฒุนูู
ูู ูุบูุฑูู
ู
ู ุงูู
ุชูู
ูู ุจุงุฑุชูุงุจ ุฌุฑุงุฆู
ูุธูุนุฉ ุ ุฃ
ูุตู ุฌุฏูุฏ ุนู ุงูู
ุณุคูููุฉ ุงูุฌูุงุฆูุฉ ุงููุฑุฏูุฉ ูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู
ุชู
ุชูุฏูู
ูุง. ูุฌุจ ุฃู ูููู ุงููุตู ุงูุฎุงุต ุจูุงููู ุงูุฌู ูุงููุถุงุก
ุชู
ุช ุฅุฒุงูุชู ุ ู
ุน ููู ุงููุณู
ุงูุฎุงุต ุจุงููุถุงุก ุงูุฎุงุฑุฌู ุฅูู ุงููุตู
ูู ุงูุฅูููู
. ุงูุฃูู
ูุฉ ุงูู
ุชุฒุงูุฏุฉ ูู
ุญูู
ุฉ ุงูุนุฏู ุงูุฏูููุฉ
ูุชู
ุงูุงุนุชุฑุงู ุจุงูุนุฏุงูุฉ ู
ู ุฎูุงู ุชุฎุตูุต ูุตู ู
ููุตู ููุง. ุงููุณู
ุนูู
ุชู
ููู ุงูู
ุญูู
ุฉ ุงูุฏูููุฉ ููุงููู ุงูุจุญุงุฑ ุฅูู
ูุตู ูู ูุงููู ุงูุจุญุงุฑ. ูุงูุช ุงููุตูู ุงูุฃุฎุฑู ูู ุงููุชุงุจ
ุฅุนุงุฏุฉ ูุญุตูุง ูุชุญุฏูุซูุง ูุฅุนุงุฏุฉ ูุชุงุจุชูุง ุนูุฏ ุงูุถุฑูุฑุฉ. ููุฏ ููุช ูุฐูู
ูุงุฏุฑ ุนูู ุชุตุญูุญ ุจุนุถ ุงูุฃุฎุทุงุก. ูุณุนุฏูู ุจุดูู ุฎุงุต ุฃู ุงููุชุงุจ
ุชู
ุช ุชุฑุฌู
ุชู ุฅูู ุนุฏุฉ ูุบุงุช ู
ู ุจูููุง ุงูุตูููุฉ ูุงูุจูููุฏูุฉ ูุงูููุบุงุฑูุฉ
ูุงูุจุฑุชุบุงููุฉ ูุฃูุง ู
ู
ุชู ุฌุฏูุง ูุนู
ู ูู ูุคูุงุก
ู
ุชูุฑุท.
ุฃูุฏ ุจุดูู ุฎุงุต ุฃู ุฃุดูุฑ Sinead Moloney ู
ู ูุงู
ุจุฑูุฏุฌ
ู
ุทุจุนุฉ ุงูุฌุงู
ุนุฉ ูุชุดุฌูุนูุง ูู
ุณุงุนุฏุชูุง ููุจู ูู ุดูุก ุงูุตุจุฑ.
ูุดูุฑ ู
ูุฑูู ุฃูุณุชูู ุจุดูู ุฎุงุต ุนูู ุจุญุซูุง ุงูุฏููู
ุงูู
ุณุงุนุฏุฉ ูุชุญุฏูุซ ูุณู
ู
ุฑุฌุน ุงูููุจ. ุฃูุง ุ ู
ุฑุฉ ุฃุฎุฑู ุ
ู
ู
ุชู ุฌุฏูุง ูุฏูุงู ุฅูููุช ุนูู ุชุญุฑูุฑูุง ุงูุฏููู ูุงูุดุงู
ู ู
ุฅูู Maureen MacGlashan ูุฅุนุฏุงุฏ ุงูููุฑุณ ูุงูุฌุฏุงูู ุจุนูุงูุฉ
ุนูู ุงูุชูุงูู. ูุง ูุฒุงู ููุงู ุฏูู ููุณูุฑ Elihu Lauterpacht QC ูุชุดุฌูุนู
ูู ุงูุชุทููุฑ ุงูู
ุจูุฑ ููุฐุง ุงูุนู
ู. ุฃูุง ุฃูุถุง ู
ุง ุฒูุช ู
ู
ุชูุง
ุงูุนุฏูุฏ ู
ู ุฒู
ูุงุฆู ู
ู ุงูุนุฏูุฏ ู
ู ุงูุจูุฏุงู ููุตุงุฆุญูู
ูุชุดุฌูุนูู
ุ
ู
ุน ุทู
ุฃูุชูู
ุจุฃู ูู ุงูู
ุณุคูููุฉ ุนู ุงูู
ูุชุฌ ุงูููุงุฆู
ููุน ู
ุนู ุจุดูู ู
ุจุงุดุฑ.
ุชุนุฑูู ุงููุงููู ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ
ูููุฉ ุงููุงููู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ุชุนุฑูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุนุงู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ูุชุงุจุฉ ููู ุฉ ูุงููู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ุชุฎุตุต ูุงููู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ู ุญุงู ู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ุชุฑุฌู ู ุงููุงููู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ูุงูููู ุจุงูุงูุฌููุฒู
ุงููุงููู ุงูุงูุฌููุฒู pdf
ู ุงุฏุฉ ู ุตุทูุญุงุช ูุงููููุฉ ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ
ุชุญู ูู ูุชุงุจ ู ุตุทูุญุงุช ูุงููููุฉ ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ pdf
ุชุญู ูู ูุงู ูุณ ูุงูููู ุนุฑุจู ุงูุฌููุฒู pdf
ู ุนุฌู ุงููุงููู pdf
ู ุตุทูุญุงุช ุงููุงููู ุงูุฌูุงุฆู ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ
ุฌู ูุน ุงูููู ุงุช ุงููุงููููุฉ ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ
ุชุนุฑูู ุงููุงููู ุจุงููุบุฉ ุงูุงูุฌููุฒูุฉ
international human rights law in many areas. At the same time, it is far from perfect.
Accordingly, contrasts between U.S. law and international law in specific areas can help
highlight any needed areas of improvement in either tradition. Also, the emergence of
the United States as the sole superpower in the post–Cold War era makes it ever more
vital for the United States to promote international human rights and humanitarian law.
Yet the U.S. commitment to human rights and humanitarian law has been tepid at best; a
number of important treaties remain unratified, and others have been ratified only with
large numbers of reservations, declarations, and understandings designed to limit their
impact. The tentativeness of this commitment may well stem in part from the unfamiliarity of human rights and humanitarian law to many in the United States, including a
large segment of its legal profession. The comparative analysis with U.S. law may offer a
small contribution to demystifying and clarifying to a U.S. audience the ramifications of
a full commitment to human rights and humanitarian law.
We then address procedural and substantive law, which constitutes the major proportion of the book. In the sections dealing with substantive law, we have focused on issues
the we believe a U.S. law student audience would find especially interesting and timely.
Such issues include abortion, the death penalty, torture, gay rights, war crimes, genocide
and discrimination, freedom of speech, and economic rights.
Finally, we have placed theoretical materials at the end of the book to suggest that a
more abstract and critical treatment of international human rights law and international
humanitarian law may be best approached after one has become familiar with the substantive and procedural law. We have attempted to give the reader a taste of different
theoretical and critical approaches from a variety of viewpoints.
Beyond the pedagogical purposes of this book, we hope that in exposing the law
student to the full range of current human rights and humanitarian legal issues, this
book will illuminate the future promise of human rights and humanitarian law as a
means of protecting individuals and groups facing persecution. The inspiration of that
promise – and the responsibilities it imposes – sustain the efforts of countless advocates
for international human rights and humanitarian law.
We invite our readers – faculty, students, practitioners, and others – to send suggestions and comments as well as any corrections. Rights International can be reached
through its home page at http://www.rightsinternational.org or by e-mail at rightsinternational.org>.
Researching International Human Rights Law
Itis our hope that the casebook will serve as a research aid for practitioners handling cases,
and students and faculty writing about international human rights law topics. Thus, one
purpose of this book is to bring together in a convenient arrangement a large portion of
the impressive body of international human rights and humanitarian case law.
At the same time, it is clear that no single work can possibly be comprehensive. While
the present work provides a useful starting point for research, lawyers and academics will
of course need to supplement its efforts. The human rights litigator and academic should
be aware that library searches, often through hard copies of poorly indexed and dated
materials, will be essential to comprehensive legal analysis. The materials of the United
Nations, for example, are among the most daunting and obscure to research
ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูู ุงูุนุฏูุฏ ู
ู ุงูู
ุฌุงูุงุช. ูู ุงูููุช ููุณู ุ ูู ุฃุจุนุฏ ู
ุง ูููู ุนู ุงููู
ุงู.
ููููุง ูุฐูู ุ ูู
ูู ุฃู ูุณุงุนุฏ ุงูุชูุงูุถ ุจูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฃู
ุฑููู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูู ู
ุฌุงูุงุช ู
ุญุฏุฏุฉ
ุชุณููุท ุงูุถูุก ุนูู ุฃู ู
ุฌุงูุงุช ุงูุชุญุณูู ุงูู
ุทููุจุฉ ูู ุฃู ู
ู ุงูุชูุงููุฏ. ุฃูุถุง ุ ุธููุฑ
ุงูููุงูุงุช ุงูู
ุชุญุฏุฉ ุจุงุนุชุจุงุฑูุง ุงูููุฉ ุงูุนุธู
ู ุงููุญูุฏุฉ ูู ูุชุฑุฉ ู
ุง ุจุนุฏ ุงูุญุฑุจ ุงูุจุงุฑุฏุฉ ุชุฌุนููุง ุฃูุซุฑ ู
ู ุฃู ููุช ู
ุถู
ุญูููุฉ ููููุงูุงุช ุงูู
ุชุญุฏุฉ ูุชุนุฒูุฒ ุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู.
ูู
ุน ุฐูู ุ ูุงู ุงูุชุฒุงู
ุงูููุงูุงุช ุงูู
ุชุญุฏุฉ ุจุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู ูุงุชุฑุฉ ูู ุฃุญุณู ุงูุฃุญูุงู ุ ุฃ
ุนุฏุฏ ุงูู
ุนุงูุฏุงุช ุงููุงู
ุฉ ุงูุชู ูู
ูุชู
ุงูุชุตุฏูู ุนูููุง ุ ูุชู
ุงูุชุตุฏูู ุนูู ุงูู
ุนุงูุฏุงุช ุงูุฃุฎุฑู ููุท
ุฃุนุฏุงุฏ ูุจูุฑุฉ ู
ู ุงูุชุญูุธุงุช ูุงูุฅุนูุงูุงุช ูุงูุชูุงูู
ุงุช ุงูู
ุตู
ู
ุฉ ููุญุฏ ู
ู
ุชุฃุซูุฑ. ูุฏ ููุจุน ุชุฌุณูุฏ ูุฐุง ุงูุงูุชุฒุงู
ุฌุฒุฆูุงู ู
ู ุนุฏู
ุงูุฅูู
ุงู
ุจุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู ุฅูู ุงููุซูุฑูู ูู ุงูููุงูุงุช ุงูู
ุชุญุฏุฉ ุ ุจู
ุง ูู ุฐูู
ุดุฑูุญุฉ ูุจูุฑุฉ ู
ู ู
ููุชูุง ุงููุงููููุฉ. ูุฏ ููุฏู
ุงูุชุญููู ุงูู
ูุงุฑู ู
ุน ุงููุงููู ุงูุฃู
ุฑููู
ู
ุณุงูู
ุฉ ุตุบูุฑุฉ ูู ุฅุฒุงูุฉ ุงูุบู
ูุถ ุนู ุงูุขุซุงุฑ ุงูู
ุชุฑุชุจุฉ ุนูู
ุงูุงูุชุฒุงู
ุงููุงู
ู ุจุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู.
ุซู
ูุชูุงูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฅุฌุฑุงุฆู ูุงูู
ูุถูุนู ุงูุฐู ูุดูู ุงูุฌุฒุก ุงูุฃูุจุฑ ู
ู ุงููุชุงุจ. ูู ุงูุฃูุณุงู
ุงูุชู ุชุชูุงูู ุงููุงููู ุงูู
ูุถูุนู ุ ุฑูุฒูุง ุนูู ุงููุถุงูุง
ูุนุชูุฏ ุฃู ุฌู
ููุฑ ุทูุงุจ ุงููุงููู ุงูุฃู
ุฑููู ุณูุฌุฏ ุงูุชู
ุงู
ูุง ุฎุงุตูุง ููู ุงูููุช ุงูู
ูุงุณุจ.
ูุชุดู
ู ูุฐู ุงููุถุงูุง ุงูุฅุฌูุงุถ ูุนููุจุฉ ุงูุฅุนุฏุงู
ูุงูุชุนุฐูุจ ูุญููู ุงูู
ุซูููู ูุฌุฑุงุฆู
ุงูุญุฑุจ ูุงูุฅุจุงุฏุฉ ุงูุฌู
ุงุนูุฉ
ูุงูุชู
ููุฒ ูุญุฑูุฉ ุงูุชุนุจูุฑ ูุงูุญููู ุงูุงูุชุตุงุฏูุฉ.
ูุฃุฎูุฑุง ุ ููุฏ ูุถุนูุง ุงูู
ูุงุฏ ุงููุธุฑูุฉ ูู ููุงูุฉ ุงููุชุงุจ ูุงูุชุฑุงุญ ุฃู ุฃ
ู
ุนุงูุฌุฉ ุฃูุซุฑ ุชุฌุฑูุฏูุง ูููุฏูุง ูููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู
ูุฏ ูุชู
ุงูุชุนุงู
ู ู
ุน ุงููุงููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู ุจุดูู ุฃูุถู ุจุนุฏ ุฃู ูุตุจุญ ุงูุดุฎุต ุนูู ุฏุฑุงูุฉ ุจุงููุงููู ุงูู
ูุถูุนู ูุงูุฅุฌุฑุงุฆู. ููุฏ ุญุงูููุง ุฅุนุทุงุก ุงููุงุฑุฆ ุทุนู
ูุง ู
ุฎุชูููุง
ุงูููุฌ ุงููุธุฑูุฉ ูุงูุญุฑุฌุฉ ู
ู ู
ุฌู
ูุนุฉ ู
ุชููุนุฉ ู
ู ูุฌูุงุช ุงููุธุฑ.
ูุฑุงุก ุงูุฃูุฏุงู ุงูุชุฑุจููุฉ ููุฐุง ุงููุชุงุจ ุ ูุฃู
ู ุฃู ูุชู
ุงููุดู ุนู ุงููุงููู
ุทุงูุจ ุฅูู ู
ุฌู
ูุนุฉ ูุงู
ูุฉ ู
ู ุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ุงูุญุงููุฉ ูุงููุถุงูุง ุงููุงููููุฉ ุงูุฅูุณุงููุฉ ุ ูุฐุง
ุงููุชุงุจ ุณูู ูููุฑ ูุนุฏ ุงูู
ุณุชูุจู ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู ุจุงุนุชุจุงุฑู
ูุณุงุฆู ุญู
ุงูุฉ ุงูุฃูุฑุงุฏ ูุงูุฌู
ุงุนุงุช ุงูุชู ุชูุงุฌู ุงูุงุถุทูุงุฏ. ู
ุตุฏุฑ ุฅููุงู
ูุฐูู
ุงููุนุฏ - ูุงูู
ุณุคูููุงุช ุงูุชู ููุฑุถูุง - ุชุฏุนู
ุฌููุฏ ุนุฏุฏ ูุง ูุญุตู ู
ู ุงูู
ุฏุงูุนูู
ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ุงูุฅูุณุงูู.
ูุญู ูุฏุนู ูุฑุงุกูุง - ุฃุนุถุงุก ููุฆุฉ ุงูุชุฏุฑูุณ ูุงูุทูุงุจ ูุงูู
ู
ุงุฑุณูู ูุบูุฑูู
- ูุฅุฑุณุงู ุงูุงูุชุฑุงุญุงุช ูุงูุชุนูููุงุช ููุฐูู ุฃู ุชุตุญูุญุงุช. ูู
ูู ุงููุตูู ุฅูู ุงูุญููู ุงูุฏูููุฉ
ู
ู ุฎูุงู ุตูุญุชูุง ุงูุฑุฆูุณูุฉ ุนูู ุงูู
ููุน http://www.rightsinternational.org ุฃู ุนู ุทุฑูู ุงูุจุฑูุฏ ุงูุฅููุชุฑููู ุนูู ุงูุนููุงู rightsinternational.org>.
ุงูุจุญุซ ูู ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู
ูุฃู
ู ุฃู ูููู ุฏูุชุฑ ุงูู
ูุงุญุธุงุช ุจู
ุซุงุจุฉ ุฃุฏุงุฉ ู
ุณุงุนุฏุฉ ููุจุญุซ ููู
ู
ุงุฑุณูู ุงูุฐูู ูุชุนุงู
ููู ู
ุน ุงูุญุงูุงุช ุ
ูุงูุทูุงุจ ูุฃุนุถุงุก ููุฆุฉ ุงูุชุฏุฑูุณ ุงููุชุงุจุฉ ุญูู ู
ูุงุถูุน ุงููุงููู ุงูุฏููู ูุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู. ูุจุงูุชุงูู ุ ูุงุญุฏ
ุงูุบุฑุถ ู
ู ูุฐุง ุงููุชุงุจ ูู ุงูุฌู
ุน ุจูู ูู ุชุฑุชูุจ ู
ูุงุณุจ ุฌุฒุก ูุจูุฑ ู
ู
ู
ุฌู
ูุนุฉ ู
ุซูุฑุฉ ููุฅุนุฌุงุจ ู
ู ูุงููู ุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ุงูุฏููู ูุงูุณูุงุจู ุงููุถุงุฆูุฉ ุงูุฅูุณุงููุฉ.
ูู ุงูููุช ููุณู ุ ู
ู ุงููุงุถุญ ุฃูู ูุง ููุฌุฏ ุนู
ู ูุงุญุฏ ูู
ูู ุฃู ูููู ุดุงู
ูุงู. ูู ุญูู
ูููุฑ ุงูุนู
ู ุงูุญุงูู ููุทุฉ ุงูุทูุงู ู
ููุฏุฉ ููุจุญุซ ุ ูุณูู ุงูู
ุญุงู
ูู ูุงูุฃูุงุฏูู
ููู
ุจุงูุทุจุน ุชุญุชุงุฌ ุฅูู ุชูู
ูุฉ ุฌููุฏูุง. ู
ุญุงู
ู ุญููู ุงูุฅูุณุงู ูุงูุฃูุงุฏูู
ู ููุจุบู
ูุฌุจ ุฃู ุชุฏุฑู ุฃู ุนู
ููุงุช ุงูุจุญุซ ูู ุงูู
ูุชุจุงุช ุ ุบุงูุจูุง ู
ู ุฎูุงู ูุณุฎ ูุฑููุฉ ู
ููุฑุณุฉ ุณูุฆุฉ ูู
ุคุฑุฎุฉ
ุงูู
ูุงุฏ ุ ุณูููู ู
ู ุงูุถุฑูุฑู ููุชุญููู ุงููุงูููู ุงูุดุงู
ู. ุงูู
ูุงุฏ ุงูู
ุชุญุฏุฉ
ุงูุฃู
ู
ุ ุนูู ุณุจูู ุงูู
ุซุงู ุ ูู ู
ู ุจูู ุฃูุซุฑูุง ุดุงูุฉ ูุบู
ูุถ ุงูุจุญุซ
ุณูุฉ ุงููุดุฑ : 2013ู / 1434ูู .
ุญุฌู ุงููุชุงุจ ุนูุฏ ุงูุชุญู ูู : 0.9 ู ูุฌุง ุจุงูุช .
ููุน ุงููุชุงุจ : pdf.
ุนุฏุงุฏ ุงููุฑุงุกุฉ:
ุงุฐุง ุงุนุฌุจู ุงููุชุงุจ ูุถูุงู ุงุถุบุท ุนูู ุฃุนุฌุจูู ู ูู ููู ุชุญู ููู ู ู ููุง:
ุดูุฑูุง ูู ุณุงูู ุชูู
ุดูุฑุงู ูู
ุณุงูู
ุชูู
ู
ุนูุง ูู ุงูุฅุฑุชูุงุก ุจู
ุณุชูู ุงูู
ูุชุจุฉ ุ ูู
ูููู
ุงุงูุชุจููุบ ุนู ุงุฎุทุงุก ุงู ุณูุก ุงุฎุชูุงุฑ ูููุชุจ ูุชุตููููุง ูู
ุญุชูุงูุง ุ ุฃู ูุชุงุจ ููู
ูุน ูุดุฑู ุ ุงู ู
ุญู
ู ุจุญููู ุทุจุน ููุดุฑ ุ ูุถูุงู ูู
ุจุงูุชุจููุบ ุนู ุงููุชุงุจ ุงูู
ูุฎุงูู:
ูุจู ุชุญู
ูู ุงููุชุงุจ ..
ูุฌุจ ุงู ูุชููุฑ ูุฏููู
ุจุฑูุงู
ุฌ ุชุดุบูู ููุฑุงุกุฉ ู
ููุงุช pdf
ูู
ูู ุชุญู
ููุฉ ู
ู ููุง 'http://get.adobe.com/reader/'